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Chad in Detail

Chad, landlocked state in north-central Africa. The country’s terrain is that of a shallow basin that rises gradually from the Lake Chad area in the west and is rimmed by mountains to the north, east, and south. Natural irrigation is limited to the Chari and Logone rivers and their tributaries, which flow from the southeast into Lake Chad. The capital, N’Djamena (formerly Fort-Lamy), is almost 1,000 miles (1,600 km) by road from the western African coastal ports.

Although it is the fifth-largest country on the continent, Chad—much of the northern part of which lies in the Sahara—has a population density of only about 20 persons per square mile (8 persons per square km). Most of the population lives by agriculture; cotton is grown in the south, and cattle are raised in the central region. Chad joined the ranks of oil-producing countries in 2003, raising hopes that the revenues generated would improve the country’s economic situation.

[1] NATURE

Land: Chad is bounded on the north by Libya, on the east by Sudan, on the south by the Central African Republic, and on the west by Cameroon, Nigeria, and Niger. The frontiers of Chad, which constitute a heritage from the colonial era, do not coincide with either natural or ethnic boundaries.

Relief and drainage: In its physical structure Chad consists of a large basin bounded on the north, east, and south by mountains. Lake Chad, which represents all that remains of a much larger lake that covered much of the region in earlier geologic periods, is situated in the centre of the western frontier; it is 922 feet (281 metres) above sea level. The lowest altitude of the basin is the Djourab Depression, which is 573 feet (175 metres) above sea level.

In the early Holocene Epoch, possibly until as recently as 7,000 years ago, the lake stood at a level of about 1,100 feet (335 metres) above sea level, or some 180 feet (55 metres) higher than today, and was as much as 550 feet (170 metres) deep. At that stage Mega-Chad, as it has been called, occupied an area of some 130,000 square miles (336,700 square km) and overflowed southward via the present-day Kébi River and then over the Gauthiot Falls westward to the Benue River and the Atlantic Ocean. Older dune systems, flooded by Mega-Chad, form linear islands in the present lake and extend hundreds of miles to the east, the interdunal hollows being occupied by diatomites and other lake sediments.

The mountains that rim the basin include the volcanic Tibesti Massif to the north (of which the highest point is Mount Koussi, with an elevation of 11,204 feet [3,415 metres]), the sandstone peaks of the Ennedi Plateau to the northeast, the crystalline rock mountains of the Ouaddaï (Wadai) region to the east, and the Oubangui Plateau to the south. The semicircle is completed to the southwest by the mountains of Adamawa and Mandara, which lie mostly beyond the frontier in Cameroon and Nigeria.

Chad’s river network is virtually limited to the Chari and Logone rivers and their tributaries, which flow from the southeast to feed Lake Chad. The remaining Chad waterways are either seasonal or are of insignificant size. The Chari, which arises from headstreams in the Central African Republic to the south, is later joined from the east by the Salamat Wadi and from the west by the Ouham River, its largest tributary. After entering an ill-defined area of swampland between Niellim and Dourbali, it flows through a large delta into Lake Chad. The Chari is about 750 miles (1,200 km) in length and has a flow that normally varies between 600 and 12,000 cubic feet (17,000 to 340,000 litres) per second, according to the season. The Logone, which for some of its course runs along the Cameroon frontier, is formed by the junction of the Pendé and Mbéré rivers; its flow varies between 170 and 3,000 cubic feet (4,800 and 85,000 litres) per second, and its course is more than 600 miles (965 km) long before it joins the Chari at N’Djamena. The level of Lake Chad fluctuates according to the flow of these rivers, as well as according to the degree of precipitation, evaporation, and seepage. The droughts of the 1970s and early ’80s in the Sahel region of western Africa reduced the lake to record low levels. By 1985 it had been reduced to a pool, immediately to the north of the Chari–Logone mouth, occupying about 1,000 square miles (2,600 square km). The size of the lake continued to decline, and in the early 21st century, the area was typically about 580 square miles (1,500 square km).

Soils: Several types of soil formation occur in Chad, apart from the sand of the desert zone and the sheer rock of the mountainous areas. On the south side of Lake Chad the soils are derived from clayey deposits that accumulated on the floor of Mega-Chad. Along the seasonally flooded banks of the Chari and Logone rivers and the Salamat Wadi, hydromorphic (waterlogged) soils occur. Tropical iron-bearing soils, red in colour, are found on the exposed folds and mounds of the Ouaddaï region’s upland slopes. In the area north of Lake Chad, subarid soils are characteristic, except in the depressions that occur between the dunes on the shores of Lake Chad, where hydromorphic soils liable to salinization are found.

Climate of Chad: Chad’s wide range in latitudes (that extend southward from the Tropic of Cancer for more than 15°) is matched by a climatic range that varies from wet and dry tropical to hot arid. At the towns of Moundou and Sarh, in the wet and dry tropical zone, between 32 and 48 inches (800 and 1,200 mm) of rain falls annually between May and October. In the central semiarid tropical (Sahel) zone, where N’Djamena is situated, between 12 and 32 inches (300 and 800 mm) of rain falls between June and September. In the north rains are infrequent, with an annual average of less than one inch being recorded at Largeau.

Chad thus has one relatively short rainy season. The dry season, which lasts from December to February everywhere in the country, is relatively cool, with daytime temperatures in the mid-80s to mid-90s F (upper 20s to mid-30s C) and nighttime temperatures that drop to the mid-50s F (low to mid-10s C). From March onward it becomes very hot until the first heavy rains fall. At N’Djamena, for example, daytime temperatures average more than 100° F (38° C) between March and June. Heavy rains begin at N’Djamena in July, and average daytime temperatures drop to the low 90s F (mid-30s C), but nighttime temperatures remain in the 70s F (20s C) until the onset of N’Djamena’s dry, cool season in November.

Plant and animal life: Three vegetation zones, correlated with the rainfall, may be distinguished. These are a wet and dry tropical zone in the south, characterized by shrubs, tall grasses, and scattered broad-leaved deciduous trees; a semiarid tropical (Sahel) zone, in which savanna vegetation gradually merges into a region of thorn bushes and open steppe country; and a hot arid zone, composed of dunes and plateaus in which vegetation is scarce and occasional palm oases are to be found.

The tall grasses and the extensive marshes of the savanna zone have an abundant wildlife. There large mammals—such as elephants, hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, warthogs, giraffes, antelopes, lions, leopards, and cheetahs—coexist with a wide assortment of birds and reptiles. The rivers and the lake are among the richest in fish of all African waters. The humid regions also contain swarms of insects, some of which are dangerous.

[2] PEOPLE OF CAMEROON

The population of Chad presents a tapestry composed of different languages, peoples, and religions that is remarkable even amid the variety of Africa. The degree of variety encountered in Chad underscores the significance of the region as a crossroads of linguistic, social, and cultural interchange.

Languages: More than 100 different languages and dialects are spoken in the country. Although many of these languages are imperfectly recorded, they may be divided into the following 12 groupings: (1) the Sara-Bongo-Bagirmi group, representing languages spoken by about one million people in southern and central Chad, (2) the Mundang-Tuburi-Mbum languages, which are spoken by several hundred thousand people in southwestern Chad, (3) the Chado-Hamitic group, which is related to the Hausa spoken in Nigeria, (4) the Kanembu-Zaghawa languages, spoken in the north, mostly by nomads, (5) the Maba group, spoken in the vicinity of Abéché and throughout the Ouaddaï region of eastern Chad, (6) the Tama languages, spoken in the Abéché, Adré, Goz Béïda, and Am Dam regions, (7) Daju, spoken in the area of Goz Béïda and Am Dam, (8) some languages of the Central African groups, particularly Sango (also the lingua franca of the Central African Republic), which are spoken in the south, (9) the Bua group, spoken in southern and central Chad, (10) the Somrai group, spoken in western and central Chad, and (11) Mimi and (12) Fur, both spoken in the extreme east.

In addition to this rich assortment, Arabic is also spoken in various forms and is one of the two official languages of the country. The dialects spoken by the nomadic Arabs differ from the tongue spoken by settled Arabs. A simplified Arabic is spoken in towns and markets; its diffusion is linked to that of Islam.

French is the other official language, and it is used in communications and in instruction as well, although the national radio network also broadcasts in Arabic, Sara Madjingay, Tuburi, and Mundang. While a regional form of French, showing local linguistic and environmental peculiarities, is spoken widely in the towns, its penetration into the countryside is uneven. Its use is closely linked to the development of education.

Ethnic groups: As might be expected, the linguistic variety reflects an ethnic composition of great complexity. A general classification may nevertheless be made, again in terms of the three regions of Chad.

In the wet and dry tropical zone, the Sara group forms a significant element of the population in the central parts of the Chari and Logone river basins. The Laka and Mbum peoples live to the west of the Sara groups and, like the Gula and Tumak of the Goundi area, are culturally distinct from their Sara neighbours. Along the banks of the Chari and Logone rivers, and in the region between the two rivers, are found the Tangale peoples.

Among the inhabitants of the semiarid tropical zone are the Barma of Bagirmi, the founders of the kingdom of the same name; they are surrounded by groups of Kanuri, Fulani, Hausa, and Arabs, many of whom have come from outside Chad itself. Along the lower courses of the Logone and Chari rivers are the Kotoko, who are supposedly descended from the ancient Sao population that formerly lived in the region. The Yedina (Buduma) and Kuri inhabit the Lake Chad region and, in the Kanem area, are associated with the Kanembu and Tunjur, who are of Arabic origin. All of these groups are sedentary and coexist with Daza, Kreda, and Arab nomads. The Hadjeray (of the Guera Massif) and Abou Telfân are composed of refugee populations who, living on their mountainous terrain, have resisted various invasions. On the plains surrounding the Hadjeray are the Bulala, Kuka, and the Midogo, who are sedentary peoples. In the eastern region of Ouaddaï live the Maba, among whom the Kado once formed an aristocracy. They constitute a nucleus surrounded by a host of other groups who, while possessing their own languages, nevertheless constitute a distinct cultural unit. The Tama to the north and the Daju to the south have formed their own separate sultanates. Throughout the Ouaddaï region are found groups of nomadic Arabs, who are also found in other parts of south central Chad. Despite their widespread diffusion, these Arabs represent a single ethnic group composed of a multitude of tribes. In Kanem other Arabs, mostly of Libyan origin, are also found.

In the northern Chad regions of Tibesti, Borkou, and Ennedi the population is composed of Black nomads. Their dialects are related to those of the Kanembu and Kanuri.

Religion of Chad: About three-fifths of the population are Sunni Muslim. The great majority of Muslims are found in the north and east of Chad. Islamization in Kanem came very early and was followed by the conversion to Islam of the major political entities of the region, such as the sultanates of Wadai, Bagirmi, and Fitri, and—more recently—the Saharan region. Islam is well established in most major towns and wherever Arab populations are found. It has attracted a wide variety of ethnic groups and has forged a certain unity which, however, has not resulted in the complete elimination of various local practices and Animists account for almost one-fifth of the population. Animism flourishes in the southern part of the country and in the mountainous regions of Guera. The various traditional religions provide a strong basis for cohesion in the villages where they are practiced. Despite a diversity of beliefs, a widespread common feature is the socioreligious initiation of young people into adult society.

Slightly more than one-fifth of the population are Christian, primarily Protestant or Roman Catholic. In Chad, as elsewhere, Christian missionary work has not affected the Muslim population; it has been directed toward the animist populations in the cities in the western regions south of the Chari River and in parts of the central uplands area.

Settlement patterns: Conditioned by soil and climate, land is put to different uses in the three vegetation zones, which dictates settlement patterns. The wet and dry tropical zone is inhabited by farmers who cultivate rice and sorghum in the clay soils and peanuts (groundnuts) and millet in the sandier areas. Cassava (manioc) is also cultivated. Between the latitudes of 11° and 15° N, the retreat of the rivers in the dry season leaves behind flooded depressions called yaere, allowing a second crop of “dry season” sorghum, or berbere, to be cultivated. Since 1928 the cultivation of cotton in the area between the Logone and Chari rivers has been encouraged, first by the colonial administration and since 1960 by the national government. Cotton cultivation, while tending to upset the ecological balance by exhausting the soil, has nevertheless resulted in the introduction of a cash economy in place of a barter economy. The cultivation of rice, begun in 1958 in irrigated plots in the Bongor region, south of N’Djamena, has proved successful. Improved strains of both cotton and rice have produced higher yields.

The intermediate semiarid tropical zone is inhabited by both sedentary cultivators and nomadic pastoralists. The northern limit of the bloodsucking tsetse fly, deadly to cattle and the carrier of sleeping sickness to humans, is latitude 10° N; beyond this limit, extensive stock raising begins, occasionally in association with agriculture, as for example in the Kanem region. The inhabitants raise millet and grow peanuts wherever the mean annual rainfall exceeds 15 inches (380 mm). Cotton is grown where and when rainfall exceeds 30 inches (760 mm). Large herds of cattle migrate over the semiarid tropical zone in search of pasture and water. In very limited areas bordering Lake Chad, the presence of water allows three harvests of wheat and corn (maize) to be grown in some years on irrigated plots called polders. Elsewhere the seminomadic inhabitants are almost completely dependent upon rainfall. Drought has had serious repercussions, affecting both the livestock and the pastoralists, whose livelihood depends on milk products.

In the hot arid zone, nomads live among their herds of camels, frequenting palm groves in such oases as that at Largeau. Farther north, in the Tibesti Mountains, tiny plots of millet, tomatoes, peppers, and other minor crops are grown for local consumption, often in the shade of date palms. These garden crops depend on irrigation from springs breaking out from the sandstones and volcanic rocks at widely separated points and shallow wells in the sandy sediments flooring steep-sided valleys.

About one-fourth of the people are considered to be urban dwellers, and urban life in Chad is virtually restricted to the capital, N’Djamena. Founded in the early years of the 20th century, the city has undergone a dramatic growth in population, attributed not to a high degree of industrialization but to the other attractions of urban life. The majority of the population is engaged in commerce. Other major towns, such as Sarh (formerly Fort-Archambault), Moundou, and Abéché, are less urbanized than is the capital.

Demographic trends: Chad’s population is increasing at a comparatively low rate for an African country, although this rate is higher than the world average. Both the birth and death rates in Chad are well above the global average and higher than those of most neighbouring countries. Life expectancy is less than 50 years, which is below the world average but similar to most neighbouring countries. Almost half the population of Chad is under age 15.

During the mid-to-late 20th century, there was emigration—especially to Sudan, Nigeria, and northern Cameroon—resulting from drought, conflict, and famine in Chad. In the early 21st century, refugees from Sudan frequently streamed across the border to avoid conflict in that country’s Darfur region. In addition, refugees from that country as well as from Chad and the Central African Republic moved back and forth between the countries to flee from rebel activity prevalent in the border regions.

[3] ECONOMY

Agriculture and fishing: Cotton is one of Chad’s important agricultural products. Although it is basically an export crop, the processing of raw cotton provides employment for a majority of those in industry and accounts for some of Chad’s export earnings. Most of the cotton fibre ginned in Chad’s processing plants is exported to Europe and the United States.

Chad’s livestock constitutes another important economic resource and is primarily distributed across central Chad. Much of this wealth is not reflected in the national cash economy, however, and livestock products form about one-tenth of exports. There is a refrigerated meat-processing plant at Sarh. The government has tried to improve livestock by introducing stronger breeds and production by building new slaughterhouses.

Rice is produced in the Chari valley and in southwestern Chad, and wheat is grown along the shores of Lake Chad; little of either crop is processed commercially. About half the fish caught is salted and dried for export. Most fish are caught in the Lake Chad, Chari, and Logone basins.

Resources of Chad: Historically, Chad’s principal mineral resource was natron (a complex sodium carbonate), which is dug up in the Lake Chad and Borkou areas and is used as salt and in the preparation of soap and medicines. The discovery of oil north of Lake Chad led to further exploration and development, and in 2003 Chad began producing oil, which quickly became the country’s most important resource and export. There are deposits of gold located in various parts of Chad, including those mined in the southwestern part of the country. Other mineral deposits include uranium, titanium, and bauxite.

Manufacturing: In the early 21st century, much industrial development centred around the exploitation and production of oil. Many established industries, such as cotton ginning, slaughtering, and the milling of wheat and rice, are associated with agriculture. Secondary industries are few and rely on imported materials.

Finance and trade: Chad is linked together with several other countries in central Africa in the Central African Economic and Monetary Union. The monetary union uses a common currency, the CFA franc, which is issued by the Bank of Central African States. It was pegged to the euro in 2002. The country relies heavily on foreign financial assistance. The sums received exceed export earnings and in many years constitute as much as a quarter of the gross national product. The main imports are machinery and equipment, food products, and textiles, most of which come from the European Union, Cameroon, and the United States. Petroleum is by far the main export; raw cotton, live cattle, meat, and fish are also exported. Primary export partners are the United States and China.

Transportation: Chad’s economic development is primarily contingent upon the establishment of an effective transportation network. There are three access routes to the sea—by road, river, or rail, through neighbouring countries. Most of the country’s roads and trails are impractical for travel during part of the rainy season. Year-round traffic is possible on gravel-surfaced roads and on a paved section between N’Djamena and Guélendeng. Three major road axes, forming a triangle joining N’Djamena, Sarh, and Abéché, were completed but have fallen into disrepair. In 1985 a bridge across the Chari River to Kousseri, Cameroon, ended N’Djamena’s dependence on an unreliable ferry for its road connection through Cameroon to the railhead at Ngaoundéré and the sea.

Rivers are of secondary importance because of great seasonal fluctuations in water levels, with only about half the total river length navigable year-round. The Chari is navigable between Sarh and N’Djamena through August and December, and the Logone is navigable between Mondou and N’Djamena in September and October. Two railways have their terminals near the Chad border. Across the Nigerian frontier to the west there is a railhead at Maiduguri, which links up with the Nigerian ports of Lagos and Port Harcourt. Across the Sudanese frontier to the east is the railhead at Nyala, which leads eventually to Port Sudan on the Red Sea.

Air traffic plays an important role in the Chad economy, in view of the paucity of alternative means. N’Djamena’s international airport can accommodate large jets, and there are more than 40 secondary airports located throughout the country.

[4] GOVERNMENT AND SOCIETY

Constitutional framework: Under the constitution of 2018, Chad is a republic. The executive branch of the government is represented by the president, who serves as the head of state and government. The president is elected by universal suffrage to a six-year term, limited to two terms. A previous restriction that allowed the president to serve only two five-year terms was abolished in 2005, when a 2004 constitutional amendment that removed term limits was approved via national referendum; another change, made in the 2018 constitution, increased the president’s term to six years and, going forward, restored the two-term limit. The legislative branch is served by the National Assembly, comprising members who are directly elected to four-year terms; under the terms of the 2018 constitution, terms will be changed to five years with the next election. For administrative purposes, Chad is divided into regions.

After the unexpected death of Pres. Idriss Déby Itno in April 2020, the military dissolved the government and National Assembly and established a military council, the National Council of Transition, to govern for an 18-month period.

Justice: Chad’s judicial system comprises the Supreme Court and criminal and magistrate courts. A Constitutional Council and a High Court of Justice, the latter made up of National Assembly members elected by their peers to handle any cases of treason involving members of the government, were abolished under the 2018 constitution.

Health and welfare: There are major hospitals at N’Djamena, Sarh, Moundou, Bongor, and Abéché. Other health facilities include dispensaries and infirmaries dispersed throughout the country. The government, in cooperation with the World Health Organization, has developed a health education and training program. Campaigns have been conducted against malaria, sleeping sickness, leprosy, and other diseases.

The primary causes of death in Chad include lower respiratory infections, malaria, and HIV/AIDS. The country’s HIV/AIDS prevalence rate is well above the world average but similar to that of some neighbouring countries.

Education of Chad: The size of the country, the dispersion of populations, and the occasional reluctance to send children to school all constitute educational problems that the government is endeavouring to overcome. Less than half of the school-age population is enrolled. Missions and public education services are responsible for primary education. Secondary and technical education is also available. The University of N’Djamena (formerly the University of Chad), founded in 1971, offers higher education, and some Chad students study abroad.

[5] CULTURAL LIFE

With its rich variety of peoples and languages, Chad possesses a valuable cultural heritage. The country is famed for the rock paintings of its ancient inhabitants, which can be found in abundance in the caves and rock overhangs of the Tibesti Mountains. Especially well-preserved sites are located at Gonoa and Zouar. Terra-cotta heads and figures found at Gaou, near Lake Chad, are believed to be relics of the early Sao civilization.

The country’s capital, N’Djamena, has a cosmopolitan air, with lively sidewalk cafés, small bars, and discotheques. These venues are sometimes used for a modern homegrown custom called pari-match, in which a private party is staged in a rented bar or public place, with the proceeds from alcohol sales going to the host to help pay for school tuition, home repairs, and other household expenses. The city is also known for its bazaars, which sell locally produced traditional goods and crafts such as textiles, camel-hair carpets and jackets, brass ornaments, and pottery. Also located in the capital is the National Museum, which houses prehistoric and traditional artifacts.

Chad has a small but well-regarded music industry. Modern Chadian musicians combine Western-influenced pop with traditional songs and instruments. Important indigenous instruments include a three-stringed lute featuring a bowl-shaped sound box covered with camel skin. By custom, only men are allowed to play these lutes. One of Chad’s most popular recording artists is the ballad singer Clément Masdongar, who has earned a following in the French-speaking countries of Africa and made several appearances at European musical festivals. Tibesti, a Chadian dance-music group, has also appeared internationally.

The local people of Chad have long enjoyed traditional contests of strength and skill. In the south footraces have often figured in the coming-of-age rites of several groups, with courses extending to a hundred miles and more. Such races have also popularly accompanied cattle-driving festivals and other celebrations. In the hotter, drier north, camel races, archery competitions, and wrestling matches mark traditional wintertime festivals, which are still observed alongside Muslim holidays.

More modern competitive sports such as football (soccer) and basketball are also popular throughout Chad, but intramural matches are rare, owing largely to the lack of travel funds and the impassability of Chad’s mostly dirt roads for much of the year. As a result, Chadians have not been able to field teams for many regional competitions, nor have they been able to gain the experience that comes from playing against a variety of teams. Chad made its Olympic debut at the 1964 Tokyo Games, but it has not yet won an Olympic medal.